Tiers Monde

L2-Second Language, Target Language, Additional language, possibly in the natural course, with same conscious effort needed to acquire 

Target language-The aim or goal of language learning. 

Foreign language-has no immediate or necessary practical application, might be used later for travel or be required for school. 

Second language-an officially or societally dominant language (not speakers' L1) needed for education, employment or other basic purposes. 

Auxiliary language (in teaching, helping language) learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate political setting, or will need for purposese of wider communicaion, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives. 

The underlying knolwdge of language is called-linguistic competence.

Actual production of lanuage is called-lingustic performance. 

 第二章

Mandarin and Cantonese are counteed as the same language when emphasis on national cohesion is desired. 

disparage-贬损 

eradicated-根除

Children have mastered most of the distinctive sounds of their first language before they are 3 years old. 

They control most of the basic L1 grammatical patterns before 5 or 6.

Simultaneous multilingualism multiple L1s acquired by aobut 3 years of age.

Sequential multilingualism-L2s acquired after L1.

Children learn language by imitation-the stimulus response theory. 

Children have Innate(先天）capacity to learn language (Universal Grammar, Chomsky, 1957, p.21)

Many linguists and psychologists support that a great many of these abstract principles are common to all lanuage. 

Child grammar-normal output of children at that level of development. 

Jean Piaget -Children need additional time to master complexities in their L1 which are beyond their present linguistic grasp. 

Social Experience- Children will learn to use the language around them, no matter what their lingustic heritage. 

Appropriate social experience is a necessary condition for acquisition. 

L2 acquisition follows L1 acquisition. (p.18) Initial state for L2 learning must be prior knowledge of L1.

L2 learning has resources of L1 competence, world knowldege, and established skills for interaction. 

Congnitive maturity is significant factor for L1, not L2.

Cross-linguistic influence (transfer)

Positive transfer-L1 structure is used in a L2 , and the use is correct.

Negative transfer-L1 structure is used in a L2, and the use is correct. (foreign accent)

Reciprocal social internaction is not necessary for L2. 

Why are some L2 learners more successful than others? (p.20) Feedback, aptitude, motivation, instruction